The Banking Crisis in the UK and the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The Banking Crisis in the UK and the US - Essay Example ISA (UK & Ireland) 300 gives the right of independence to public auditors with respect to compliance with ethical requirements. ISA 300 also allows auditors to consider acceptance of the audit engagement before starting the audit. ISA 315 (UK & Ireland) gives the auditors to understand the internal governance system pertaining to risks of material misstatements and ISA 330 (UK & Ireland) even gives the auditors the right to extend the audit scope to carry out sufficient tests of controls. Given the level of empowerment to Public Auditors by the ISA, they would definitely be expected to stand and answer the reasons of this sudden turmoil in banking & financial services industry as if a time bomb was planted to be exploded and they couldn't detect the same. The financial crisis in the UK and the United States has occurred due to the same primary factor - uncontrolled Sub-Prime lending and sale of packaged "Collateralized Debt Obligations (CDOs)". Sub-Prime lending initially started with loan products for customers that do not possess a clean credit history or regular source of income. The risks against such lending were managed by acquiring collaterals of better valuation. This is the reason that the home mortgage market in both UK and the US was selected as the most suitable area for productizing sub-prime lending packages given that the property markets in both countries were booming. Banks perceived clear advantages in acquiring the homes as collaterals under mortgage deals. But the rising prices of homes were of no benefit to banks. Hence, they found a method of gaining out of the increasing valuations of the home prices - the "Collateralized Debt Obligations (CDOs)". The banks in UK & US modified their loan management life cycle w hereby the loans backed by collaterals (home mortgages) that were originally withheld by the banks internally were pooled into what is known as "Special Purpose Vehicles" or "Special Investment Vehicles" To determine the valuation of the CDOs, a new role called "Pooling Underwriter" was created in every bank in these two countries. The CDOs were sold to external investors thus developing the notion of money flowing through "conduits" from investors to borrowers that de-risked the banks. As a result, these loans went out of the balance sheet of the banks and a new asset called "derivatives" was added in the

Marketing case analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Marketing case analysis - Essay Example Accepting Sears’ proposal means that Goodyear would have to change its distribution policy. There can be certain changes such as including their own Goodyear seller that would carry this brand exclusively. The reason for doing this is that Goodyear would have their own channel through which it can sell more and more to its customers. The customers would not have to go anywhere else for buying Goodyear’s tires because Goodyear would have its stores made available everywhere within the customers’ reach. Also, it is said that channel of distribution must be selected carefully so that it is within access of most possible customers and provides a number of prospects (Linton, n.d.) . But there are some limitations as well. Firstly, the dealers might influence the customers to buy other brands because there are very few dealers who have the full knowledge of tires. Secondly, brand loyalty and tires have high tendency of being elastic in demand. One day, customer might w ant Goodyear but the other day the customer could decide to go for Sears or any other brand. Thirdly, product cannibalization might appear between Sears and the franchised dealers. Moreover, continuing sales to Sears would also trigger another concern that whether to sell the Eagle brand only or sell some other specific products as well. The other solution is to reject the proposal and maintain the status quo. This can cause a lot of problems. Already, Goodyear is facing decline in the current market position and loss of market share by 3.2%. There is high competition and Goodyear has no strong market share outside the American continent. The cut throat competition in both price and quality might cause greater problems for Goodyear. The conclusion lies with the decision of accepting the Sears proposal. By employing this action, there would be an increase in the distribution channel leading to an increment in the revenues for Goodyear. This would prove

Anxiety and the effect on a golfers performance

Anxiety and the effect on a golfers performance Anxiety can be defined as a negative unpleasant emotional state in which feelings of apprehension, nervousness, worry, distress and uneasiness are felt (Weinberg Gould, 2007 and Reber Reber, 2001). This statement states that anxiety would seem to be a hindrance and generate negative feeling for a person. Woods also states that is a negative emotional state, caused because a situation can or may be perceived as being threatening to them. In relation to sport anxiety may be thought to be through out a competition however Hassmen (p.278) states sports psychology researchers have assumed that an individuals anxiety level experienced immediately before a competition (i.e. state anxiety) has a moderating effect on subsequent athletic performance Hassem raises the argument that the feelings before a sporting event for the athlete can have an impact on an athletes perfomance, (Martens, 1971) and relating this to Weinbergs definition it would seem to be a negative effect. This is however co ntradicted by Hanin(2000) who looked at this in more depth and who suggests that there is mounting evidence that indicates athletes vary significantly in the level of anxiety that benefits the athletes performance. This therefore suggests that anxiety is a individually measurable state and not toally a hinderance, as supported by Hassmen (2000 p.278) who proposed that the optimal level of anxiety for performance can vary considerably across athletes. This statement gives light to the fact of an optimal level of arousal that shall be addressed later on. However According to Maynard (1995) the general consensus of practitioners and researchers has been of the idea that anxiety impairs performance in sport. Therefore we have the identification of anxiety and what it is supposed to be, also the different factors that it can entail, it is stated as a negative (Weinberg Gould, 2007 and Reber Reber, 2001 Maynard 1995) and also as a positive with Hassmen (2000) suggesting that there is an optimal arousal level that will help the athlete. This is however contradicted by Jones (1991) that the precise identification of the relationship between anxiety and performance has proved elusive. This is therefore suggesting that more research needs to be conducted in to the area of anxiety and to try and determine the effects if any and the relationship between them, before conclusions can be drawn. Different types of anxiety Spielberger (1971) proposed that anxiety was influenced by peoples traits and states in response to certain situations. Trait anxiety is a predisposition to perceive certain environmental situations as threatening (Cox, 2007). Woods(1998) relates this to sport and claims that a person who is trait anxious and suffers form trait anxiety would worry about the condition of the ground for the next football match a month in advance. Relating this to golf , a trait anxious person would worry about the weather the people there well in advance of situation arising. State anxiety differs from trait anxiety in that it can be seen as a temporary emotional state characterised by feelings of apprehension and tension (Cox, 2007 and Weinberg Gould, 2007). In relation to golf this may the the reaction to standing on the first tee of a compettion it is environment injusied and a repsonse to a situation. It may also changew under circumstances for example when the round is under way, anxiety levels may drop. (Woods 1998) Martens et al (1990) proposed that anxiety not only included state and trait but was also multidimensional in its nature in that it also includes cognitive and somatic factors. Polman(2007 p.39) also agrees and states anxiety consists of three independent but also interacting components, somatic(emotionally), cognitive(worry), and behavioural. These are mainly associated with state anxiety, and the two different types of anxiety somatic and cognitive are not always oth present in a athlete. For example Woods (1998) suggests that some individuals may show signs of having high somatic state anxiety before an event, but however at the same time they may come across very calm and mentally strong, showing ow signs of cognitive state anxiety. Cognitive anxiety is the mental aspect of anxiety caused by fear of negative social evaluation, fear of failure and loss of self esteem (Cox, 2007). There are also cognitive trait and cognitive state types of anxiety which again are mental responses to anxiety which are either predisposed or in response to certain environments (Cox, 2007). Maynards (1995 p.52) Definition Cognitive anxiety is the mental component of anxiety caused by the negative expectations about successor negative self-evaluation, (Burton,1988.p.46) Somatic anxiety is the awareness of arousal in the body, for example when standing on the first tee of a large golf event some people may respond to the situation with an increase in heart rate and muscular tension (Cox, 2007 and Woods, 2004). This is supported by Maynards (1995) view somatic anxiety is the physiological or affective component of anxiety that is directly related to autonomic arousal (Burton,1988.p.46) this gives two different factors of anxiety that also can be broken in to there own sub categories which as stated earlier gives reasoning for the multi dimensional theory of anxiety. Maynard states with this intervention of multidimensional that there seems to be enough research to show that anxiety is a complex multidimensional construct that differentiates anxiety in to somatic and cognitive and the sub groups. This is based on the research of Borokvec (1976) and Davidson (1976) in to the development of the understanding of anxiety. Therefore Jones (1991) may be seen as irrelevant. Measurements of anxiety To test somatic anxiety measures such as monitoring breathing rate, monitoring heart rate using an electrocardiogram and muscle response using an electromyogram can be used (Woods, 2004), it is important to acknowledge however that although performers may exhibit physiological evidence of stress, they may not report feeling stressed, it is therefore advised that numerous physiological and psychological tests are carried out to measure anxiety (Woods, 2004). Somatic anxiety is also made up of somatic trait and somatic state which again are physical predisposed or responses to situations The multidimensional theory of anxiety proposed that cognitive anxiety has a negative linear relationship with performance, whereas somatic anxiety has an inverted U shaped relationship with performance (Hardy et al, 1996). There are two main sources of anxiety that affect performance (Woods, 2004 and Murphy, 2005), pre-competitive anxiety occurs in anticipation of competition (Martens et al, 1990) and competitive anxiety that occurs during competition. Weinberg and Genuchi (1980) found that precompetitive anxiety was higher in players during the competitive rounds of golf than during the practice rounds, Cook et al (1983) however concluded that players performance affected anxiety, not anxiety having an affecting performance. Endler (1978) determined that there are five specific factors that increase anxiety in anticipation of a competitive situation; fear of performance failure, fear of negative social evaluation, fear of physical harm, situation ambiguity and disruption of a well learned routine. Sub Categories to come? One of the test for anxiety that is the most renowned is the Sport Competitive Anxiety Test abbreviated to SCAT test, this is a derived to show the anxiety in a performer through a questionnaire, the SCAT test has been developed to asses competitive A-trait in performers (Martens) The competitive A-trait is defined in three ways the first being the individual differences that a person may have when perceiving a threat either physically or mentally to the state response to the threat. The last is the combination of the two. (Martens) This is different from A-State which focuses on a persons dealing with the situation as the event is occuring The SCAT test is a combination of questions that are given in such a manner to try and lead the participant away from guessing that, it is about anxiety. This is done by the introduction of questions that can be totally random, to make the participant think of an aspect of the game and hopefully add to the validity of the results. If not and the p articipant can guess that it is a study in relation to anxiety then they may feel the need not to be laboratory bias and put answers that are not true to them selves. Csai-2 stands for Competitive State Anxiety Inventory Anxiety optimal arousal The relationship between arousal and anxiety is thought to need one there so that the other can exist. Both Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety are closely Associated with the concept of arousal, which refers to the intensity and dimension of behaviour, the state of the organism varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement (Martens ) and arousal are very closely linked anxiety is seen to be one of the negative forces that can effect arousal.(Oxedine 1970) however according to woods(p.91) arousal is neither a positive nor a negative, it is the perception of arousal that may lead to stress and anxiety. Therefore this is the link between anxiety and arousal. According to wood it is the perception of arousal that people perceive differently and may lead them to feel uneasy, anxious or stressed. For example if two golfers are standing on the first tee and the are perfectly matched ability wise, but have pycholoigical differences when dealing with anxiety, and therefore effecting the arousal level of the player and visa versa, with the player dealing with arousal by being anxious, if the player does not deal with this as well as the other then this may have a detrimental effect on there performance . Anshel(1997) states that anxiety has a psychological basis and arousal is the physiological side therefore both are interlinked. When researching however it seems that stress anxiety pressure are all used interchangeable in this relationship, and needs to be taken in to consideration. For Example Kremer and Scully (1994) argue that separating arousal, anxiety and stress is too tidy and because there is considerable overlap and interaction between them. When relating this to sport then, they may be seen as being used overlapping, for example a golfer suffering form anxiety stress or pressure, may be seen as negative. However as we will see the right amount of any of these symptoms, can help an athlete in the right situations; there fore there may need to be some more clarification on these subtle difference between them and what they actually entail. Arousal is a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person, and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motiviation at a particular moment. (Weinberg p.78) this contradicts Anshel statement of them being two parts to one symptom. Woods(p.90) finds that arousal refers to the state of alertness and anticipation that prepares the body for action: it involves physiological activity (such as increased heart rate and cognitive activity (such as increase in attention) This supports Weinberg theory and leaves the thought that arousal is taken in to consideration just before competing and, there does seem to be a direct link between anxiety and arousal, and this impact on the performance. Arousal is neither a positive nor a negative; it is the perception of arousal that may lead to stress and anxiety. Arousal is seen through many different measuring tools firstly is the drive theory this is the theory which was developed by Hull (1951) and Spence (1956) woods P.94. The drive theorys more focused at athletes that are highly skilled for example relating this to golf any one who is a single figure golfer. This entailing that have a grasp of technique and there skill is well learned and autonomous and can be repeated easily. The drive theory then goes on to state that with this ability level that the higher the pressure or arousal the better the performance, and will allow the athlete top perform the skill very successfully. (Woods) This theory is adapted in to a formula and highlighted by Anshel() who looks The Drive Theory has been criticised for the fact that it is not clear what a well learned skill is and can be defined as (woods), also research has shown that after a certain point arousal becomes a hindrance and detrimental( Weinberg Golud) this there fore leads to a system that would have an optimal arousal level. Which is incorporated in the in Inverted U theory. The inverted U theory is a theory that is developed a shows a curvilinear relationship between arousal and relationship. (Anshel) Starting off with low levels of arousal in relation to lower standard then normal, as arousal increases so does the performance, (Weinberg Gould) this is the same principle as the drive theory however it is curved at the optimal level of arousal and then begins to dip afterwards as seen below (Weinberg Gould) FIGXXX Therefore the more arousal and anxiety after this the performance will decrease. Thus the effect of arousal on performance is based on the optimal level given the particular skill.(Anshel p. 73) This theory was bought up to account for some of the criticism of the drive theory(Woods) In relation to the optimal level of arousal Hanin looked at the alternative view of individualized zones of optimal functioning. (Haninà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦w and g p.87) This view on arousal levels is different for two main reasons one of these being that the optimal level of arousal does not always occur in the middle of the continuum it can vary between different athletes (Weinberg Gould) some performances may peak at a very lowlevel of arousal and anxiety and others at a very high level of arousal. This is all to do with the type of person that they are. As stated before anxiety is the reaction to arousal levels and perceiving a situation as threatening therefore if an individual does not see a situation as a threat then there arousal and anxiety may be lower and it may take a certain situation to induce this peak performance and optimal arousal level. The other difference between the inverted U and the IZOF is that the, IZOF has not one singular point that is the optimal level of arous al however a bandwidth and continuum (Weinberg Gould) this therefore gives an easier range for an athlete or performer to aim at and to try and achieve rather than a specific point, which may seem very difficult. Catastrophe Model Supporting evidence for these and against these Methodology Pilot study The pilot study that was carried out involved the two questionnaires that were previously revised in the literature review the SCAT test to find trait anxiety and the CSAI-2 questionnaire to determine the amount of state anxiety. The test were administers and different stages one two days before and renamed and adapted and the other ten minutes before the game began. The first one administered was the CSAI-2 questionnaire on the recommendations of Martens (p.52) as he states that when the CSAI-2 test is delivered together with the SCAT test it recommended that the CSAI-2 test is delivered first as not to impact the results of the SCAT test. The tests were no longer then five minutes each and the questions in the SCAT tests that were not important, were adapted to be golf specific and related to other parts of the round and game, for example how often do you use a routine in your set up, and how often do you play to your handicap these are spurious items on the questionnaire. I used t o players one of a low handicap and one of a higher handicap; these two roughly encompass the range of my final sample group for testing. The two participants played 6 holes of golf with me the researcher watching and I informed them that I would be taking pictures and detailed notes of the round, for them and also to take there scores. This would be to see later on if there scores in the test would have any correlation between the state and trait anxiety, so if they are a generally anxious person or if they only getting anxious at threatening situations and how they deal with this. If they play the holes in a worse score then they would normally do relating to there handicap, and stroke index is going to have to be taken in to consideration, and if they scored highly on the CSAI-2 test or the SCAT test then there could be some correlation between the two scores, and this what we are going to be looking for. Copies of the questionnaires and the score cards for the rounds can be foun d in the appendices. Subjects The Subjects that were chosen are all from Bourn Golf club located in Cambridgeshire and are all members and have been for at least three years. They all play on average twice a week, therefore they no the course well and feel comfortable playing there. This should take away form any anxiety about the unknown and focus on the competitive anxiety and arousal. The players range from a Touring PGA professional to a 22 handicapper golfer with the average in the UK being 20 so the range is from elite player to beginner, there will be 8 participants ranging between the ages of 21 and 60. Therefore the adult version of the CSAI-2 shall be used rather than the child version. The participants that were found for the study were all volunteers and happy to undertake the study all consent and ethics forms are attached in the appendices. Materials The materials used in the study were largely questionnaire based. The first questionnaire used was the CSAI-2 test it is a test that is formed up of 27 questions and a scale of 1-4 is used with 1 being the response not at all and 4 is the response very much so. The CSAI-2 is used to measure anxiety scores and in particular state anxiety scores. This is the measuring tool that was redeveloped from the CSAI questionnaire it was redeveloped by Martens, Burton and Vealy 1990, there are different forms of the CSAI-2 one for children and one for adults, the questionnaire not only measures anxiety it has been adapted to look at the two different types of anxiety as stated before the cognitive side of anxiety the psychological side and the somatic side the physiological symptoms related to anxiety, these can be seen as sweaty palms, being uneasy and not relaxed. The second questionnaire that is going to be given is the SCAT test this will be given after the participants have had a practise and just before they go out to play there holes. The Scat test is used to measure trait anxiety, this is looking at the persons genetic make up if they are generally a anxious person regard less the situation they are in. The SCAT test consists of 15 questions with 5 spurious items with in it to prevent the participant from gathering that the questionnaire is looking at anxiety, also the questionnaires are going to renamed, the instructions shall be kept the same however the titles shall be Competing in sport 1 which will be the CSI-2 questionnaire and Competing in sport 2 which shall be the SCAT test. Procedure The procedure was started with the participant filling out the consent forms and reading the ethics forms. The next step was for the participants to go through the proceedings with the researcher and to make sure they fully understand and are content with what is going to be asked of them, the researcher then went on to inform the participant that they are going to be filmed, as this is an out side stressor that would normally be present on the golf course. However Ii is only the illusion they are going to be filmed there will be no tape in the came as it is data that is not useful or needed. With this it will add another component to the environment and the player may see it as an item to raise arousal and then consequently anxiety is an effect from this, this will give the basis for the results, will this rise in arousal and anxiety improve the players performance or be detrimental, for the participants. The next step is to go through a score card and in relation to there handicap put the scores down on the holes that they would normally have. This will be the basis of the results this is in comparison to a control group that the players normally perform to. This also is adding a target for the players, that may have the same effect as the camera After this they will be assigned the CSAI-2 questionnaire and asked to complete this, to break up the questionnaires as stated by Martens (1990), the participants shall be asked to take part in a warm up and hit a few balls to have a practise. This also reduces the risk of injury and gives the players time to get used to the researcher being there and the surroundings. The net step that was undertaken was to take players to first tee, and to mark the score card on each hole for the player. The study should last approximately

How September 11th Changed American Culture Essay -- September 11 Terr

As Americans, we used to worry little about war, having enough to eat, travel, freedom, and our most basic everyday activities. The tragic events of September 11, 2001 have forever changed the American way of life. We have become more concerned with our physical safety because of the endless terror attacks in America and other countries. Americans have certainly become more patriotic since September 11. Many of us watch the news to learn of any new terror attack or major offensive against cities in Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, a variety of countries in Africa, Yemen and numerous other locations. The stock exchange hit bottom on September 21 in the 8100 range and is now back over 17,000 (Pellegrini). Oil prices have been dropping, which will help to boost our slowing economy. Unemployment rates will unfortunately probably remain the same. "Manpower, Inc. said Monday that its survey of United States companies' hiring intentions for the first three months of the year barely regist ered a pulse, but our commitment together to boost the nation's economy will ensure a bright future. America's future seems to be based on our new ideas formed since September 11, but yet we still carry on the problems of the past. There is still many Americans living in poverty. There is still illegal drugs that infest our nation with addiction and crime that encircles the drug trade. There are many children not getting a good education and many of whom who are fearful of violence at our schools. It is up to us as Americans to face these problems head on now more than ever before. The nation's most important problems to tackle and change are our illegal drug problem, the lack of good education for those of all ages, and to end the terrorist s... ... An Autopsy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. McGeary, Johanna. "The Taliban Troubles." Time 1 Oct 2001: 14. National Center of Educational Statistics. government. 18 Nov 2001. National Center of Educational Statistics. government. 18 Nov 2001. National Center of Educational Statistics. government. 18 Nov 2001. Office of National Drug Control Policy. government. April 2001. 18 Nov 2001. Pellegrin, Frank. "The Street This Week: Planes, Trains, Automobiles, Malls -- Or None of the Above?" Time 19 Nov 2001. 21 Nov 2001. Quiram, Jacquelyn, Mei Ling Rein, and Nancy Jacobs, eds. Education--Reflecting Our Society. Wylie: Information Plus, 1998. "Who are America's Drug Users?" org. 14 Nov 2001. 18 Nov 2001. Zill, Oriana and Lowell Bergman. "Do the Math: Why the Illegal Drug Business is Thriving." org. 14 Nov 2001. 18 Nov 2001.

Gutenberg’s Press and the Transition from Medieval to Modern

There are many ideas and concepts that facilitated the transition from the Medieval Era to a more modern, Renaissance society, but it can be argued that Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press was the most important factor to this change in Europe. The creation of the press was no easy task for Gutenberg; he was faced with many obstacles. However, once created, the press benefited people around the world for centuries and continues to be a fundamental part of our society today. Before the invention of the printing press, books were extremely expensive, limiting education to the very wealthy. Because only the upper class could afford to purchase books, education was a means of separating the aristocracy from the lower classes. It was nearly impossible for the less fortunate to move up in society since they could not educate themselves. The reason books were so pricey was due to the methods employed to create each page individually. For a scribe to copy an entire novel by hand would take much patience and many hours. A common method of producing copies was for one man to read the original word by word, and a group of scribes would write each word as the reader said them. â€Å"By this method,† describes John Fontana in his work Mankind's Greatest Invention, â€Å"one manuscript served as the source of reproduction for many copies when the scribes finished writing the last of the reader's orally presented words† (13). Not only was this time consuming, but the more copies that were made, the more errors were made. Eventually, a method of creating copies without such a high margin of error came about. People would hand carve blocks of wood with raised letters and cover the blocks with ink. Then they would place a sheet of paper on the block to make a copy. To make the process even more difficult, they had to carve the letters and words backwards so they would print correctly, and they had to make these letters look normal when reversed. Albert Kapr, in his book Johann Gutenberg: The Man and his Invention, describes how â€Å"a calligrapher had first to write out this text, which was traced as a mirror-image reversal on to a planed limewood plank and then cut out with a knife in such a way that the lettering was left as a raised surface† (21). This method is called xylography, and while it was an improvement in that it reduced mistakes, carving a block of wood for each page to be printed was even more time consuming than writing the words by hand, and books remained as expensive as ever. Johann Gensfleisch Gutenberg, a goldsmith from Mainz, Germany, wanted to change all this. His idea was to replace the wood blocks with separate letters made of metal. One would be able to move the letters around to make words and sentences, and then reuse them. â€Å"The key to this new method was not as is generally believed, the discovery of the value of movable type, for movable letters had been known and used for centuries,† explains Fontana. â€Å"It was the mechanism for making the types† (28). This type of printing press was, in fact, already being used in China, but the technology to create such a machine was yet to be discovered in Europe. In working to build this machine, Gutenberg was faced with obstacle after obstacle. Just when he would think he might have mastered it, he would encounter another problem to solve. â€Å"The invention of typography was not,† noted Theo DeVinne in his work The Invention of Printing, â€Å"the result of a happy thought or of a flash of inspiration. It was not born in a day . . . it was thought out and wrought out† (376). To begin with, he had two main concerns: finding a device that would keep the letters in place, and making a press that would print clearly. Gutenberg soon came up with a solution to the first of the two issues. He paid a carpenter for the use of his winepress, so as to have â€Å"a suitable bed for a page of metal letters to rest on,† and arranged the letters on one side of it (Fontana 22). He wanted to come up with a frame to hold the paper; then when one was ready to print, they could twist a screw to press the paper up against the letters. The letters were to be created by pouring melted metal into a mold. Then Gutenberg came across several more problems. The first was the question of how to make all of the letters exactly the same thickness so that when they were pressed against the paper, they would print evenly. Also, he needed a solution for putting narrow letters on narrow metal bases and wide letters on wide bases. Using the same base for all letters would not only be impractical in that it would waste space, it would also make the words look uneven, with different sized spaces between letters. Regardless of the width of the character, each metal piece had to be the same height so the lines would not be crooked. DeVinne made the point that â€Å"if the types of one character, as of the letter a, should be made the merest trifle larger or smaller than its fellows of the same font, all the types, when composed, will show the consequences of the defect† (52). Gutenberg came up with two brilliant ideas to solve the problems. In order to make all of the letters the same thickness, he made the mold the desired height and added extensions on the sides to catch any overflowing metal. That way he could make sure that they would not be too thick, and as long as he poured metal to the top, they would not be too thin. Once dried, â€Å"this extra piece at the bottom of the metal letters opposite to the part the prints called the face, was easily broken off and smoothed before it was used for the printed page† (Fontana 30). As for making the letters different widths, he had to make an adjustable mold. He first experimented using wood, and once perfected, he made one out of metal. He came up with a mold that consisted of two L-shaped pieces that could fit together, and slide back and forth to make the enclosed area larger or smaller. Here Gutenberg encountered further setbacks. The lead he had been using to make the letters was too soft-it was printing unevenly after just a few pages had been printed. Gutenberg solved the problem of making the typeface hard enough to resist pressure by mixing the lead with parts of tin and a substance that acted like antimony,† hardening the metal and preventing expansion or shrinkage while the metal dried (Fontana 30). It also took a lot of searching to find ink that was the right consistency to leave a thin layer on paper. Should it be too thin, it would spread through the paper, and should it be too thick, it would clump and appear uneven. Upon fixing these problems, Gutenberg had come up with his first working printing press. With it, he printed copies of the first, second, and third editions of the Donatus. However, few people would purchase the pages because many considered his invention immoral, as they believed hand-written script to be a sacred art. Also, there were still problems with the press. The type face varied too much-the lines would go from thin to thick and back to thin again, and the ink did not stick to paper well. DeVinne tells us that â€Å"judged by modern standards, the types are ungraceful; the text letters are too dense and black, and the capitals are of rude form, obscure, and too small for the text† (421). The press itself took a lot of strength, especially when making multiple copies. All of these parts needed improvement, so Gutenberg got to work. He created more defined molds and stronger metal letters, which allowed for thinner printed lines. In hopes of eventually printing the Bible, Gutenberg worked to create letters that would, when placed together, resemble the handwriting of scribes. It was a difficult task, but he managed to finalize pages of beautiful lettering, each having two columns. The only problem was that only thirty-six lines would fit on a page, and Gutenberg wanted to fit forty-two lines. Otherwise, the amount of pages to print the Bible would be much greater and more costly. â€Å"If he had been only an ordinary dreamer about great inventions,† believes DeVinne, â€Å"he would have abandoned an enterprise so hedged in with mechanical and financial difficulties† (416). It was around this time that Gutenberg met John Fust, who offered to help finance his project if they could form a partnership. Gutenberg agreed as he was greatly in need of a means of paying for new equipment to make a forty-two-page press. DeVinne reports that these â€Å"small types were unique; they were never used, so far as we know for any other work† (406). This was most likely Gutenberg's greatest mistake, because when Fust did not get a quick return on his money, he sued Gutenberg for almost all of his equipment, including the new printing press. This was a set back from which Gutenberg never recovered, and though his invention greatly benefited many, he died a poor man. The printing press made a dramatic impact on European culture in many ways. One important way that it affected society was to bring about a higher level of individualism than had been before experienced. As Marshall McLuhan noted in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographical Man, â€Å"the portability of the book, much like that of easel-painting, added much to the new cult of individualism† (206). Because there was no longer the need to be a part of a University or monastery in order to have access to books and education, people began spending more and more time on their own, teaching themselves, and therefore, becoming more and more independent. The distribution of a highly increased number of books due to the invention of the press also facilitated individualistic ideas by giving more people the opportunity to read, forcing them to interpret information themselves. In an oral culture, one is taught by the verbal explanations of others, allowing little opportunity for personal interpretation or for discovering oneself through thought and analysis of material, as is possible in a written culture. â€Å"To the oral man the literal is inclusive, contains all possible meanings and levels,† and through the introspection demanded by this increase in reading, individualism soared (McLuhan 111). With this increase in individualism came much higher levels of education and literacy. McLuhan, in discussing the advantages the press gave to learning, said â€Å"this very natural inclination towards accessibility and portability went hand in hand with greatly increased reading speeds which were possible with uniform and repeatable type† (207). Because the printing press used the same mold for multiple copies of the same letter, it was much less difficult to read than when it was necessary to accustom oneself with each scribe's handwriting with which one was encountered. The significant decrease in the price of books that occurred in conjunction with the printing press paved the way for the education and rise of a new middle class. â€Å"The book became a source of productive energy for a new breed of merchants and entrepreneurs,† and where before these people had been held back from penetrating the higher levels of society, they could now afford to educate themselves (Kapr 20). This education led to a cycle that allowed the middle class to make more money, which allowed them to purchase even more books and further educate themselves. While this new class of people did not have the social status of the aristocracy, Wyndham Lewis stated that â€Å"birth or training, in this age that has been called that of bastards and adventurers, never mattered less† (qtd. in McLuhan 119). Another important change that the invention of the printing press brought about was the new concept of mass production. Before the press, nobody had thought of the idea of creating something that could produce multiple copies of anything, so multiple copies of pages were just the first of endless possibilities. â€Å"Just as print was the first mass-produced thing, so it was the first uniform and repeatable commodity,† and the realization that exact duplicates could be made of products other than books was one that has been acted on for centuries to bring us mass-production as we know it today (McLuhan 125). Clearly Gutenberg's invention of the printing press with movable type was a turning point in history from medieval to modern times. While its creation took many practice runs and a lot of trial-and-error, Gutenberg's incredible patience and determination paid off and helped to build the new culture of the Renaissance. The press was not just a means of copying the written page, but a vehicle for the concept of individualism, the rise of education and the new middle class, and an introduction to mass production. Gutenberg’s Press and the Transition from Medieval to Modern There are many ideas and concepts that facilitated the transition from the Medieval Era to a more modern, Renaissance society, but it can be argued that Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press was the most important factor to this change in Europe. The creation of the press was no easy task for Gutenberg; he was faced with many obstacles. However, once created, the press benefited people around the world for centuries and continues to be a fundamental part of our society today. Before the invention of the printing press, books were extremely expensive, limiting education to the very wealthy. Because only the upper class could afford to purchase books, education was a means of separating the aristocracy from the lower classes. It was nearly impossible for the less fortunate to move up in society since they could not educate themselves. The reason books were so pricey was due to the methods employed to create each page individually. For a scribe to copy an entire novel by hand would take much patience and many hours. A common method of producing copies was for one man to read the original word by word, and a group of scribes would write each word as the reader said them. â€Å"By this method,† describes John Fontana in his work Mankind's Greatest Invention, â€Å"one manuscript served as the source of reproduction for many copies when the scribes finished writing the last of the reader's orally presented words† (13). Not only was this time consuming, but the more copies that were made, the more errors were made. Eventually, a method of creating copies without such a high margin of error came about. People would hand carve blocks of wood with raised letters and cover the blocks with ink. Then they would place a sheet of paper on the block to make a copy. To make the process even more difficult, they had to carve the letters and words backwards so they would print correctly, and they had to make these letters look normal when reversed. Albert Kapr, in his book Johann Gutenberg: The Man and his Invention, describes how â€Å"a calligrapher had first to write out this text, which was traced as a mirror-image reversal on to a planed limewood plank and then cut out with a knife in such a way that the lettering was left as a raised surface† (21). This method is called xylography, and while it was an improvement in that it reduced mistakes, carving a block of wood for each page to be printed was even more time consuming than writing the words by hand, and books remained as expensive as ever. Johann Gensfleisch Gutenberg, a goldsmith from Mainz, Germany, wanted to change all this. His idea was to replace the wood blocks with separate letters made of metal. One would be able to move the letters around to make words and sentences, and then reuse them. â€Å"The key to this new method was not as is generally believed, the discovery of the value of movable type, for movable letters had been known and used for centuries,† explains Fontana. â€Å"It was the mechanism for making the types† (28). This type of printing press was, in fact, already being used in China, but the technology to create such a machine was yet to be discovered in Europe. In working to build this machine, Gutenberg was faced with obstacle after obstacle. Just when he would think he might have mastered it, he would encounter another problem to solve. â€Å"The invention of typography was not,† noted Theo DeVinne in his work The Invention of Printing, â€Å"the result of a happy thought or of a flash of inspiration. It was not born in a day . . . it was thought out and wrought out† (376). To begin with, he had two main concerns: finding a device that would keep the letters in place, and making a press that would print clearly. Gutenberg soon came up with a solution to the first of the two issues. He paid a carpenter for the use of his winepress, so as to have â€Å"a suitable bed for a page of metal letters to rest on,† and arranged the letters on one side of it (Fontana 22). He wanted to come up with a frame to hold the paper; then when one was ready to print, they could twist a screw to press the paper up against the letters. The letters were to be created by pouring melted metal into a mold. Then Gutenberg came across several more problems. The first was the question of how to make all of the letters exactly the same thickness so that when they were pressed against the paper, they would print evenly. Also, he needed a solution for putting narrow letters on narrow metal bases and wide letters on wide bases. Using the same base for all letters would not only be impractical in that it would waste space, it would also make the words look uneven, with different sized spaces between letters. Regardless of the width of the character, each metal piece had to be the same height so the lines would not be crooked. DeVinne made the point that â€Å"if the types of one character, as of the letter a, should be made the merest trifle larger or smaller than its fellows of the same font, all the types, when composed, will show the consequences of the defect† (52). Gutenberg came up with two brilliant ideas to solve the problems. In order to make all of the letters the same thickness, he made the mold the desired height and added extensions on the sides to catch any overflowing metal. That way he could make sure that they would not be too thick, and as long as he poured metal to the top, they would not be too thin. Once dried, â€Å"this extra piece at the bottom of the metal letters opposite to the part the prints called the face, was easily broken off and smoothed before it was used for the printed page† (Fontana 30). As for making the letters different widths, he had to make an adjustable mold. He first experimented using wood, and once perfected, he made one out of metal. He came up with a mold that consisted of two L-shaped pieces that could fit together, and slide back and forth to make the enclosed area larger or smaller. Here Gutenberg encountered further setbacks. The lead he had been using to make the letters was too soft-it was printing unevenly after just a few pages had been printed. Gutenberg solved the problem of making the typeface hard enough to resist pressure by mixing the lead with parts of tin and a substance that acted like antimony,† hardening the metal and preventing expansion or shrinkage while the metal dried (Fontana 30). It also took a lot of searching to find ink that was the right consistency to leave a thin layer on paper. Should it be too thin, it would spread through the paper, and should it be too thick, it would clump and appear uneven. Upon fixing these problems, Gutenberg had come up with his first working printing press. With it, he printed copies of the first, second, and third editions of the Donatus. However, few people would purchase the pages because many considered his invention immoral, as they believed hand-written script to be a sacred art. Also, there were still problems with the press. The type face varied too much-the lines would go from thin to thick and back to thin again, and the ink did not stick to paper well. DeVinne tells us that â€Å"judged by modern standards, the types are ungraceful; the text letters are too dense and black, and the capitals are of rude form, obscure, and too small for the text† (421). The press itself took a lot of strength, especially when making multiple copies. All of these parts needed improvement, so Gutenberg got to work. He created more defined molds and stronger metal letters, which allowed for thinner printed lines. In hopes of eventually printing the Bible, Gutenberg worked to create letters that would, when placed together, resemble the handwriting of scribes. It was a difficult task, but he managed to finalize pages of beautiful lettering, each having two columns. The only problem was that only thirty-six lines would fit on a page, and Gutenberg wanted to fit forty-two lines. Otherwise, the amount of pages to print the Bible would be much greater and more costly. â€Å"If he had been only an ordinary dreamer about great inventions,† believes DeVinne, â€Å"he would have abandoned an enterprise so hedged in with mechanical and financial difficulties† (416). It was around this time that Gutenberg met John Fust, who offered to help finance his project if they could form a partnership. Gutenberg agreed as he was greatly in need of a means of paying for new equipment to make a forty-two-page press. DeVinne reports that these â€Å"small types were unique; they were never used, so far as we know for any other work† (406). This was most likely Gutenberg's greatest mistake, because when Fust did not get a quick return on his money, he sued Gutenberg for almost all of his equipment, including the new printing press. This was a set back from which Gutenberg never recovered, and though his invention greatly benefited many, he died a poor man. The printing press made a dramatic impact on European culture in many ways. One important way that it affected society was to bring about a higher level of individualism than had been before experienced. As Marshall McLuhan noted in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographical Man, â€Å"the portability of the book, much like that of easel-painting, added much to the new cult of individualism† (206). Because there was no longer the need to be a part of a University or monastery in order to have access to books and education, people began spending more and more time on their own, teaching themselves, and therefore, becoming more and more independent. The distribution of a highly increased number of books due to the invention of the press also facilitated individualistic ideas by giving more people the opportunity to read, forcing them to interpret information themselves. In an oral culture, one is taught by the verbal explanations of others, allowing little opportunity for personal interpretation or for discovering oneself through thought and analysis of material, as is possible in a written culture. â€Å"To the oral man the literal is inclusive, contains all possible meanings and levels,† and through the introspection demanded by this increase in reading, individualism soared (McLuhan 111). With this increase in individualism came much higher levels of education and literacy. McLuhan, in discussing the advantages the press gave to learning, said â€Å"this very natural inclination towards accessibility and portability went hand in hand with greatly increased reading speeds which were possible with uniform and repeatable type† (207). Because the printing press used the same mold for multiple copies of the same letter, it was much less difficult to read than when it was necessary to accustom oneself with each scribe's handwriting with which one was encountered. The significant decrease in the price of books that occurred in conjunction with the printing press paved the way for the education and rise of a new middle class. â€Å"The book became a source of productive energy for a new breed of merchants and entrepreneurs,† and where before these people had been held back from penetrating the higher levels of society, they could now afford to educate themselves (Kapr 20). This education led to a cycle that allowed the middle class to make more money, which allowed them to purchase even more books and further educate themselves. While this new class of people did not have the social status of the aristocracy, Wyndham Lewis stated that â€Å"birth or training, in this age that has been called that of bastards and adventurers, never mattered less† (qtd. in McLuhan 119). Another important change that the invention of the printing press brought about was the new concept of mass production. Before the press, nobody had thought of the idea of creating something that could produce multiple copies of anything, so multiple copies of pages were just the first of endless possibilities. â€Å"Just as print was the first mass-produced thing, so it was the first uniform and repeatable commodity,† and the realization that exact duplicates could be made of products other than books was one that has been acted on for centuries to bring us mass-production as we know it today (McLuhan 125). Clearly Gutenberg's invention of the printing press with movable type was a turning point in history from medieval to modern times. While its creation took many practice runs and a lot of trial-and-error, Gutenberg's incredible patience and determination paid off and helped to build the new culture of the Renaissance. The press was not just a means of copying the written page, but a vehicle for the concept of individualism, the rise of education and the new middle class, and an introduction to mass production.

Although the foetus has no right to life, its interests are adequately protected by English law.

Introduction The right to life is a moral principle that is based upon the premise that all individuals have a right not to be killed by another human being. This concept that is central to the debates surrounding abortion since it is often contested whether unborn children should also have the right to life. Those in favour of abortion often take the view that a foetus is not sufficiently human to be capable of acquiring a right to life, whilst those in opposition believe that a foetus is human and that its right to life should therefore be protected. There is currently no direct right to life that is provided to a foetus, yet the law in the UK does make some attempt to protect its interests. This essay will focus on the interests that are provided to foetus’ in order to consider whether adequate protection is in place. In doing so, it will be examined whether every woman should have a right to abortion on demand or whether the interests of the foetus should be given due consideration. A ccordingly, it will be shown that because there are arguments for and against the interests of the foetus, it is necessary for the law to strike a balance between the two competing interests. This does appear to have been achieved to a certain degree since the interests of the mother are being preserved, whilst also providing some protection to the foetus. The right to life The right to life is provided to all individuals under Article 2 of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) 1951, as incorporated by the Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998. Whether or not a foetus has a right to life, however, is a highly contested topic because although the foetus does not have a right to life per se, it appears as though its interests are still being protected by the law to a certain extent.[1] On the one hand, it is believed that all women should have the right to do as they wish with their own bodies and that they should therefore have a right to abortion, yet on the other it is believed that the interests of a foetus should be provided with adequate protection.[2] The law in England does seem to have attempted to strike a balance between these two competing interests by permitting abortion, whilst at the same time imposing some restrictions. Under English law (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990) abortion is permitted until the 24th week of a pregnancy. Whilst this provides women with the right to choose what to do with their own bodies, it prevents them from having abortions in the later stages of pregnancy. Because abortion is not legally available at the request of the woman, it has been argued by the Abortion Rights Campaign that; â€Å"women’s access to abortion can be and is still threatened.†[3] This is because, once a woman has decided that she wants to have an abortion, she will first be required to persuade two doctors to agree to her decision taking into consideration certain restrictive legal criteria.[4] Therefore, even though women are capable of having an abortion up until the 24th week of pregnancy, it will be the doctors that make the final decision. And, if they do not agree that the relevant criterion has been satisfied, they will not have to carry out the abortion. This protection is in place to enable the rights of the unborn child to be ascertained in circumstances which would render an abortion unlawful. However, the extent to which such rights are being adequately protected is in fact arguable. Confliction continues to arise in this area because of the difficultly in striking a balance between the rights of the foetus and the rights of the mother. It cannot be said that this balance is currently being achieved as there remains strong opposition of both viewpoints. As pointed out by Mason and Laurie; â€Å"attitudes to abortion depend almost entirely on where the holder stands in respect of, on the one hand, the foetal interests in life and, on the other, a woman’s right to control her own body.†[5] Consequently, because the difference in opinions is based upon moral values rather than empirical facts, it is unlikely that such confliction will ever be resolved.[6] In effect, it is unlikely that a solid understanding of the rights in this area will ever be made as the controversy surrounding abortion will continue to exist. The Foetus’ Right to Life It is believed that the Abortion Act 1967 violates Article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the basis that a child’s rights are not being adequately protected if women are able end their pregnancy if they so wish.[7] Section 1 of the 1967 Act provides that; â€Å"a person shall not be guilty of an offence under the law relating to abortion when a pregnancy is terminated by a registered medical practitioner.† In effect, women will not be found guilty of an offence is they decide to have an abortion. Whilst this section does appear to undermine the rights of the foetus, the fact that the termination must be conducted by a registered medical practitioner acting in good faith suggests that some form of protection will still be in place. Furthermore, as put by Herring; â€Å"for an abortion to be lawful, the abortion must comply with the requirements of the 1967 Abortion Act.†[8] Section 1 will therefore only apply if certain provisions can also be sa tisfied. Nevertheless, because abortions are rarely ever refused, it could be said that the provisions under Article 2 are being undermined and that the interests of the foetus are not, in reality, being adequately protected. In view of this, it has therefore been argued by Foster that the 1967 Act is not being used in the way that Parliament intended and that abortion are instead being used as another form of contraception.[9] This demonstrates how abortion is easily accessible to women, which limits the protection that is currently being provided to the foetus. It is likely that doctors will only refuse to conduct an abortion if the woman’s pregnancy has gone past the 24 week threshold or if the circumstances are exceptional. This signifies how the rights of unborn children are not being preserved, yet it is debatable whether further protections ought to be in place. The right to life is an extremely sensitive subject since it basically provides a right to every human being not be killed.[10] However, much complexity exists when considering the right to life in the context of unborn children. It is difficult to determine whether the mother’s rights should prevail over the rights of the unborn child or vice versa. However, it has been said that the right to life is a human right that is â€Å"inviolable and must be protected at all costs.†[11] If this statement was to be taken strictly, every abortion would be considered a violation of one’s human rights and would not be permitted. However, in order to ensure that the rights of the mother are also being protected it is necessary that abortions are permitted in certain circumstances. This would ensure that a balance is attained between the two competing interests by allowing abortions to take place only if it is deemed necessary. Consequently, abortions should not be used carelessly as another form of contraception and this would means that the rights of the mother are being given greater consideration than the rights of the foetus. Abortions should therefore not be as accessible as they currently are and should only be permitted in limited situations. It is unclear what extent the interests of the foetus are actually being considered and it seems as though the right to life is being violated by the abortion process and so further protections may need to be provided to the foetus so that the rights of unborn children are given the same considerations as the mother. At present, it appears as though the rights of the mother prevail over the rights of the foetus, despite the restrictions that are in place. In order to ensure that the foetus right to life is being protected, it is necessary to impose further restrictions upon the mother’s ability to have an abortion. At present, a mother is capable of aborting a foetus for various reasons including the fact that the child will suffer from a disability. Many people do not agree that this should be a reason to end the life of a foetus, though it is legal in the UK for a woman to abort a baby on grounds of disability up to birth. As a result of this many parents opt for an abortion if pre-natal screening reveals that their baby is suffering from a disability. Moreover, it has also been suggested that the parents are even put under pressure to do so.†[12] The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children strongly disagrees with this approach and believes that; â€Å"a person with a disab ility has the right to life along with every other member of society: aborting a baby because he or she has, or even might have, a disability, is the ultimate form of discrimination.†[13] It cannot be said that the foetus’ right to life is being upheld as a result of this since they can be terminated at any point if they are found to have a disability. Not only does this undermined their right to life but it also discriminates against them on the grounds of their disability. As such, the provisions under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 are too not being complied with. In Vo v France,[14] however, it was made clear that Article 2 of the Convention is â€Å"silent as to the temporal limitations of the right to life, and in particular does not define ‘everyone’ whose life is protected by the Convention.† Effectively, it is clear that because Article 2 does not provide a definition as to who shall be protected, it is likely that the rights of the foetus will continue to be restricted. Jackson does not believe that the moral status of the foetus should be sufficiently wide enough to make abortion unlawful,[15] however, and it seems as though the European Court of Justice is also reluctant as identified in Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland.[16] Furthermore, in the case of X v United Kingdom[17] the ECJ also stated that the right to life would be subject to an implied limitation in order to respect the mother’s life even if this was at the expense of the foetus’ right to life under Article 2. Furthermore, it was also expressed in Paton v United Kingdom[18] that; â€Å"the life of the foetus is intimately connected with, and cannot be regarded in isolation from, the life of the pregnant woman.† This limited the rights of the foetus even further as it was demo nstrated that the right to life under Article 2 was not available even though the abortion was not considered necessary to protect the life of the mother. This was also identified in H v Norway,[19] which illustrates that even if an abortion occurred as a result of the mother’s choice and there lacked any specific reason for terminating the pregnancy, Article 2 will still not be capable of providing protection to a foetus if this is at the expense of the mothers rights. This seems to indicate that unborn children are not actually provided with any rights despite the fact that Article 2 initially seemed to protect such interests. The termination of a pregnancy will continue to be a morally and ethically complex issue, particularly if the reason for aborting relates to a foetal abnormality.[20] It has been pointed out that a clear legal framework is needed because of the complexities that exist in this area, though it was noted that this continues to prove extremely difficult to create.[21] The Rights of the Mother Whilst it is believed by many that the rights of the foetus should be given due consideration, it is equally argued that the rights of women should be considered foremost when deciding whether an abortion is lawful or not. This was shown in Roe v Wade[22] where it was made clear by the Court that a person has a right to abortion unless the foetus has become viable. This means that the foetus does not become a human being until it is capable of living outside the mother’s womb without any artificial aid.[23] Although this decision was made by a Court in the US, it sparked a significant amount of debate. It was argued on the one hand that a foetus becomes a child whilst it is still in the womb and that the decision whether or not to allow abortion to take effect should not be based upon whether a foetus has the capacity to enjoy life as a person.[24] It has been said that the decision in this case effectively allows an abortion on demand to take place.[25] On the other hand, how ever, it has been expressed by Loveland that; â€Å"the judgment neither produced abortion on demand nor allowed states to prevent late-stage terminations.†[26] The decision in Planned Parenthood v Casey[27] imposed further limitations on the rights of the mother when it was found that the viability period would be reduced from 24 weeks to 22 weeks. It is questionable whether this was sufficient in ensuring that the right to life of the foetus under Article 2 was being provided with greater protection since the rights of the mother will continue to prevail in the majority of situations. It could be said that it is necessary for the mother’s rights to be ascertained over the rights of the unborn child because women should be regarded as individuals as opposed to being merely containers for the foetus. In accordance with this, greater consideration should be given to the rights of the mother, though some protections should also be available for the unborn.[28] Arguably, it is important that both the rights of the mother and the unborn child shall be considered, though much more weight ought to be given to the mother’s interests as she is already considered a viable person. It has been contended by Herring that; â€Å"women who want an abortion should not be required to continue with the pregnancy.†[29] Therefore, although Article 2 expressly states that the right to life is to apply to â€Å"everyone†, the extent to which this applies to the foetus is arguable in view of the confliction that exists between the rights of the mother and the rights of the foetus. In A-G’s Reference (No 3 of 119)[30] it was noted that a foetus is not regarded as a â€Å"person† and will therefore not be directly protected by Article 2 of the Convention. It was further added that the only right to life in which a foetus has is implicitly limited by the mother’s rights and interests. This suggests that a foetus will only be provided with the right to life indirectly from the mothers right under Article 2. It is unclear whether this completely undermines a foetus’ right to life, though it seems likely given that that Article 2 will not be violated if a pregnancy is terminated. The Courts have expressed great reluctance to elucidate on this matter, by assessing whether Article 2 will provide rights to the foetus or not, because of the existing moral and ethical considerations. As a result, great complexity continues to exist within this area of the law and unless Article 2 is more clearly defined, complexity will continue to ensue. Yet, because of the moral issues that are prevalent throughout, it seems as though a single approach would not be workable. Therefore, the decision as to whether an abortion should be permitted or not will continue to be decided on a case by case basis. As such, it will depend primarily upon the circumstances of each case. This allows a certain degree of flexibility to exist which is necessary given that each case will differ from the next. However, it is likely that the rights of the mother will continue to be favoured over the rights of the unborn child. Nevertheless, because of the politics that surround abortion, the European Court of Human Rights has been said to be â€Å"wary of making a general rule concerning the legal status of the foetus, preferring to leave this question to the margin of appreciation.†[31] It cannot be said that this is acceptable given the ambiguity that arises within this area. But because there is no right or wrong answer as to whether the rights of the mother should prevail over the rights of the foetus the legal status of the foetus could not be defined by the Courts without attracting opposition. It could be said that the UK has made some attempt to identify the rights of the foetus despite the fact that no right to life exists, yet the extent to which these interests are being protected will be likely to remain debated. When the case of Vo was brought before the ECHR they appeared to focus more on the question as to when life begins as well the nature and characteristics of the foetus, as opposed to focusing on the relationship between the mother and her potential child and the others right to reproductive freedom and autonomy.[32] Therefore, the approach taken by the ECHR should have been based upon the recognition of foetal interests as well as the loss of a mother’s relationship. Whilst this would not have addressed all of the difficulties that arise in this area, it would have provided some recognition as to the interests of the foetus. Much more needs to be done if foetal interests are to be provided with greater protected, whilst at the same time maintaining the rights of the mother. The rights of the mother appear to be protected in favour of the rights of the foetus, yet it has been said that this ensure the human dignity of the mother is being preserved.[33] This is because if a mother was not provided with the choice to terminate a pregnancy, it is likely that their human dignity would be violated. Whilst this this may be at the expense of the rights enshrined in Article 2, it is deemed necessary in protecting the mother’s interests. Balancing the Rights It is doubtful that the rights of the foetus and the rights of the mother are being balanced since the rights of the foetus continue to be undermined. Whilst there are some protections in place to preserve the interests of the foetus, these do not appear sufficient and so it seems as though tighter restrictions ought to be implemented to ensure that abortion is not easily accessible. This would allow for a more acceptable balance to be attained because at present it seems to be largely one-sided. If abortion was only permitted in extreme circumstances, it would not be capable of being used as another form of contraception and the interests of the foetus would be better recognised. On the contrary, it is argued that further limitations would limit the mothers freedom to choose and their own rights would be undermined if Article 2 was to provide express rights to unborn children. Therefore, whilst abortion should still be permitted, limitations should be imposed so that the rights of the foetus are given better protection. It is unclear whether judges should be left to make a decision on whether an abortion is lawful or not since opinions will differ significantly on this subject. Thus, it cannot be said that judges should be left to decide upon moral issues. Whilst one judge may agree with abortion, another judge may not as individuals have different perceptions on what is and what is not morally right. This is why the courts have been quite reluctant to use a single approach when deciding upon the interests of a foetus and it seems that the matter is better left undefined. This was identified by Sandel when it was argued that there are differences of opinions as to whether abortion is morally reprehensible and therefore worthy of prohibition, whilst many avoid passing judgment on the morality of these practices.[34] The ECHR appears to have adopted the latter approach, by failing to provide a decision on the legal status of foetus’. This lack of definition may actually be in the interests of the foetus since rights are capable of being provided that may not have been had a definition been in place. The determination as to whether abortion should be a mother’s choice or not will be capable of being assessed differently in all cases. This is necessary given the diverging opinions that exist since it will continue to be argued by many that Article 2 should provide a right to â€Å"anyone† including unborn children, whilst others will continue to be of the view that the decision should be left with the freedom of choice as protected u nder Article 13 of the Convention. The current practice that is being adopted in striking a balance between the two competing interests does appear to be the most plausible approach to take since each case will be determined by its facts. This could, however, lead to judicial activism occurring, which appears to have happened in the Roe case above which was described by Thielen as â€Å"an incredible reach of judicial activism.†[35] Judicial activism occurs when a ruling is said to be based upon political or personal considerations as opposed to being based upon existing law.[36] Therefore, if when Courts are provided with the ability to decide upon matters concerning abortion, judicial activism is likely to emerge which undermines social policy and, in some instances, human rights. Still, as put forward by Ewing and Gearty; â€Å"English judges have shown a powerful engagement with the rights of the unborn in the past,†[37] yet whether violations of one’s huma n rights are arising out of this is likely and it seems quite difficult for a balance to be achieved between the rights of the unborn with the rights of the mother. Conclusion This area is extremely controversial and because of this it is difficult for legislators as well as the judiciary to make a decision as to whether a foetus does have rights. Many people are of the view that every woman should have the right to choose whether or not to have an abortion, yet not all agree with this. Instead, it is argued that women are capable of using abortion as a form of contraception because of how easily accessible it is. Whilst there are some restraints in place to prevent this from happening, such as the requirement to obtain permission from two doctors, it cannot be said that such measures are effective. This is because it is highly unlikely that an abortion would be refused unless the stages of pregnancy have gone past the 24 week threshold. Furthermore, because women are permitted to have an abortion past this stage if the unborn child is suffering from a disability, the rights of the foetus are being undermined even further. It is therefore questionable whet her the current law is effective in preserving the interests of the foetus since the law has not made it difficult for abortions to be performed. Therefore, it could be said that further restrictions are needed so as to balance the rights of the mother with the rights of the unborn child. Conversely, because there is a limit on the number of weeks a person can abort a foetus, it could be said that their interests are being adequately protected to a certain degree. Whether this is sufficient, however, is likely to remain a contestable subject for many years to come as there will continue to be differing opinions as to whether abortion should be so easily available. In effect, there are both strengths and weaknesses for right to abortion, yet it is questionable whether the strengths do in fact outweigh the weaknesses. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cases: A-G’s Reference (No 3 of 119) [1998] AC 245 H v Norway (1992) 73 D & R 155 Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland (1992) 14 EHRR 244 Paton v United Kingdom (1980) 3 EHRR 408 Planned Parenthood v Casey (1992) 404 U.S. 833 Roe v Wade (1973) 410 U.S. 113 Vo v France Judgement of 8 July 2004 40 EHRR 12 X v United Kingdom (1980) 19 D & R 244 Legislation: Abortion Act 1967 Disability Discrimination Act 1995 European Convention of Human Rights 1951 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 Human Rights Act 1998 Textbooks: Herring, J. Law Express: Medical Law (Revision Guide), Longman, 2nd Edition, (2009). Herring, J. Medical Law and Ethics, OUP Oxford, 3rd Edition, (2010). Hope, T., Savulescu, J. and Hendrick, J. Medical Ethics and Law: The Core Curriculum, Churchill Livingstone, 2nd Edition, (2008). Kaczor, C., The Ethics of Abortion: Women’s Rights, Human Life, and the Question of Justice, (Routledge: London, 2013). Kennedy, I., Grubb, A., Laing, J. and McHale, J. Principles of Medical Law, OUP Oxford, 3rd Edition, (2010). Jackson, E. Medical Law: Text, Cases and Materials (Text, Cases and Materials), OUP Oxford, 2nd Edition, (2009). Mason, K. and Laurie, G. Mason and McCall Smith’s Law and Medical Ethics, OUP Oxford, 8th Edition, (2010). Articles: Abortion Rights Campaign, Why women need a modern abortion, law and better services, Available [Online] at: http://www.abortionrights.org.uk/content/view/180/121/ BBC, Women’s Rights Arguments in Favour of Abortion, Ethics Guide, (1992), Available [Online] at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/mother/for_1.shtml K.D and Gearty. CA, Terminating Abortion RightsNew Law Journal, 142 NLJ 1969, Issue 6579, (04 December, 1992). C, Forty Years On, New Law Journal, 157 NLJ 1517, Issue 7295, (02 November, 2007). Frankenburg, G., ‘Human Rights and the Belief in a Just World’ International Journal of Constitutional Law, Volume 12, Issue 1. Holetzky, S. What is Judicial Activism(04 February, 2010), Available [Online] at: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-judicial-activism.htm Human Rights, Right to Life: Not just an abortion issue, Available [Online] at: http://www.abouthumanrights.co.uk/right-life-not-just-abortion-issue.html I, A Vacancy in the Supreme Court, New Law Journa l, 144 NLJ 537, Issue 6644, (22 April, 1994). McCrudden, C. Human Dignity and Judicial Interpretation of Human Rights, European Journal of International Law, EJIL 2008 19 (655), Issue 4, (01 September, 2008). O’Donovan, K. Commentary, Medical Law Review, Med Law Rev 2006 14 (115), (01 March, 2006). Sandel, M. J. Symposium: Law, Community, and Moral Reasoning Moral Argument and Liberal Toleration: Abortion and Homosexuality, California Law Review, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 521, (May, 1989). The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children, SPUC, Abortion and disability or eugenic abortion, Available [Online] at: http://www.spuc.org.uk/students/abortion/disability Thielen, D. Overturn Roe v Wade, Liberal and Loving It, (2005), Available [Online] at: http://www.davidthielen.info/politics/2005/08/overturn_roe_vs.html Wicks, E., Wyldes, M. and Kilby, M. Late Termination of Pregnancy for Foetal Abnormality: Medical and Legal Perspectives, Medical Law Review, Med Law Rev 2004.12 (285), (01 September, 2004).

Sarah goodwin Essays

Sarah goodwin Essays Sarah goodwin Essay Sarah goodwin Essay Stakeholder analysis Secondary social stakeholders Primary social stakeholder Government Sarah Other buyers and department store chains Convenience store Ghetto community Prestigious department store chain Maria Sarah is a primary stakeholder because she holds the decision whether or not to call the ghetto community In Southern California. Thus, she holds high power, legitimacy, and urgency. Although she Is Just an assistant to the buyer, Maria gave Sarah the duty to call the convenience store, so it is ultimately up to Sarah to call or not. She olds a lot of power in this case because her decision can result in: potential issues with the law, diseases among the people In the ghetto, a scarred conscience, or even an end to her career. She also holds legitimacy because she works directly in the department and is holding the decision to operate. If she decides to give the infected wafers to the convenience store and inspectors find out, the blame will not only be on Sarah, but It will be on the entire chain. The people that would benefit from this are the store because they are trying to get back the money lost. The people that would be harmed are the customers of both stores and the store with the infestation. The people whose rights are being more certain are the store that has the infestation because the manager wants to get back the $9,000 by selling them to the Ghetto store. The people who are being wronged are the store who the product Is being sold too. They are under the Impression that they are getting a quality product but they are not. The moral problem is should Sarah sell the bug infested wafer product to the other store in the Ghetto. The economic outcomes are to gain back $9,000. There are not really any legal requirements against this. There are several ethical duties that this case violates. This violates the self ?Interest, personal virtues, religious injunctions, universal duties, and the distributive justice ethical principal. In the long term this action may result in higher profit but may cause future retaliation from customers, make them lose credibility, trust, and respect from customers. Many of the customers may not come to the store ever again (self-interest). People should be open, truthful, honest, moderate, and proud. This idea will not result in honesty, truthfulness, being proud, and moderate (personal virtues). This idea is not kind, compassionate, and doesnt create a sense of community (religious injunctions). Every person should be treated with diddling and respect. The customers In the Ghetto are not being treated this way (universal duties). Actions should never harm the least of us which would be the poor; this action doesnt follow this (distributive justice). Sarahs manager wants her to call this store in the Ghetto and sell these insect Infested wafers to gain back the profit. The manufacturer would not give a refund because they felt It was not their fault. If Sarah doesnt follow the command of her manager seen could lose near Jon. IT I were In tans position I would not sell ten products to the Ghetto store. My values cant let me be dishonest and I would look for a new job because I couldnt work with a manger that solves problems this way. Regardless f the legal dimension, which entails the sale of wafers, which will result in cases of poisoning and complaints and prosecutions legal may result in compensation a cash huge short-term as well as long-term, the companys reputation will be damaged, which negatively affects the results of the company and its financial performance values greater than the value that will sell the wafer. Must take into account the human and moral dimension of the impact on the process of the sale of the wafer where the affected category is likely to be the biggest beneficiary of the class. Some attitudes and situations may need to interpret and analyze even reach the employee in which the moral decision and those cases are very complicated either in such a case all the evidence suggests that in the case of approval on the sale, it means that the decision is not a moral consequent harm to others. Sarah said to be refusing to contact and try to convince Maria risk impact on it and describes the effects of the economic, legal and ethical implications, If Maria is not convinced that Sarah must go top management and explain the situation.

Sozial Classes in England essays

Sozial Classes in England essays The development of the English class Society A class is a group of people within a society who possess the same socio nomic status. (www.britannica.com) Class is defined by, for example, the behaviour, marriage and the rights and obligations between a certain group of people. Castes, possession and status are historically seen much older than the social phenomenon class. In 1688 Gregory King divided English society into twenty-six ranks and degrees. Classes did not emerge until there was a division of labour in society. The word class first came up during the Industrialisation and was created by Karl Marx. Marx divided society into three groups of people, the aristocracy, bourgeoisie and the proletarian masses. Also called the upper class, middle class and working class. Long before the Industrial Revolution successful men of business, politics and the professions had become part of the aristocracy. The generation between 1920 and 1950 saw a more rapid social change than any other British generation before. It was a silent transformation which was brought out by reforms. The main aims were the distribution of income, social security and equality of opportunities. The power of the old ruling class began to dissappear long before 1920.The generation of that time saw its collapse. Between 1914 and 1918 Britain spent as much money as it spent in the two centuries before and owed the United States a lot of money. In consequence heavy taxes were imposed and the rich had to give up their wealth to the state. In 1922 the aristocratic families were still well off but the workers movement started becoming a political force. One by one the ancestral homes which had for so long been the pride of England were sold and some of them were turned into hospitals, schools and similar other institutions. By 1950 only a few of the great country houses were left in the original use. In 1930 the major...

All quiet on the western front by Erich Maria Remarque

All quiet on the western front by Erich Maria Remarque Essay In one part of our being, a thousand years. By the animal instinct that is awakened in is we are led and protected. It is not conscious; it is far quicker, much more sure, less fallible, than consciousness. One cannot explain it56. On the battlefield of any war, past or present one would think any soldier had felt that sense of survival at one point or another. This could be named impulse acted on by fear, nervousness, or as the quote defined it, instinct in violence. The very descriptive violence in the book is one of the large clues that tell us Erich Maria Remarque, the author, is telling us some of the events he had to go through when he served in the war. Other wise it would have been another boring war novel of which classes could be spared the time. These points in the novel All Quiet on the Western Front, can be greatly explained and identified. When confronted with his survival, this instinct can drive a man to do anything for survival, even turn his senses and behavior into a wilder state of human evolution. One of the strongest themes in the book is that war makes man inhuman when confronted by violence and, or in war. From the authors point of view soldiers were often compared to various non-living objects, that were inhuman. The soldiers are often compared to coins of different provinces that are melted down, and now they bear the same stamp. 236 Remarque thinks that the soldiers mind-state has been changed from when they were school boys, the stamp being the mark of the soldier, changing them forever. Also soldiers are compared with automatons or more commonly referred to as robots. In reminder of all soldiers of either side had to go through and witness without the traumatizing violence and gore one would not have much understood this point. To a country or at least in charge, the soldiers are no more than this: inanimate devices of war or pawns. Remarque uses this analogy to give the impression that the soldiers are enduring the same feeling over and over again, as if they were inhuman. In this classic war story Remarque also describes the soldiers as inhuman wild beasts in addition to the non-living objects. Paul states that when soldiers reach the zone where the front begins they are transformed into instant human animals56 Remarque explains the zone is like a magical line; once crossed the soldiers are not the same persons as they were in a safe distance. Experiencing violence on the front trapped in a crater of a shell, though protected by it, Paul Baumer feels such desperation. My eyes burn with staring into the dark. A star shell goes up;-I duck down again. I wage a wild and senseless fight. I want to get out of the hollow an yet slide back into it again; I say you must, it is your comrades, it is not an idiotic command and again what dies it matter to me, I have only one life to loose. 211 This could mean even then though acting as some beast for survival he too has scrummed to the belief he is just another pawn. As nothing more than wild beasts Remarque states that the German soldiers are only defending what they have, not attempting to take what they dont We have become wild beasts. We do not fight, we defend ourselves against annihilation we feel a mad anger. No longer do we lie helpless, waiting on the scaffold, we can destroy and kill to save ourselves, to save ourselves and to be revenged. 113 This could be explaining that any emotion they are fighting out of at this point is from aggravation and for their own survival, and no other situation other than that of war and violence could bring this about. The sense of fighting for the glory of the FatherLand has long since gone. READ: Anthem For Doomed Youth and The Man I Killed EssayThese points have highlighted when confronted with their survival and the presence of survival even if it means changing his human nature. A second point is they can be as dolls, or coins that bare the same stamp, almost as war currency. Though all in all they were beasts when confronted with violence, or dogs without names, as long as they can survive it all. All that is needed to make such points clear does not have to be a series of explanations, rather simple and to the point imagery.

Trade and Globalization and Gains of Free Trade Essay

Trade and Globalization and Gains of Free Trade - Essay Example The various inter-governmental organizations are not as much effectual, and international businesses and entities continue to define stipulations. Governments’ role in controlling trade is still enormous and many governments are increasingly accepting it as the norm rather than the exception (Tung and Henry, 2009). Debates in recent times center whether globalization is diminishing trade or increasing it. Questions have been raised about the state the traditional roles and national governments sovereignty play over trade, and the effects that these portend in promoting fairness or inequality among countries. Others have zeroed on the balance of trade and trade payments the less developed countries, the developing countries vis-a-vis the developed world, and the focus on the glaring policy intervention differences between the global north and the global south. This paper states at the outset that Meaning of the term globalization Whereas globalization has been touching on every aspect of society today, scholars and thinkers alike have not agreed on a universal single definition of the term. Instead, a number of definitions, conceptualizations, and perspectives exist depending on which lens one views the concept. Q1. The classical ‘gains from international trade proposition’ In Kemp’s world, the gains must be examined within the confluence of world tarries such that no country in the pedestal of globalization would be worse off than in the smaller customs union (Kemp, 1987). Kemp (1987) observes that the phenomenon of globalization has been extensively used in the world, specifically in admired discourses and policy issues. For him, globalization is a term that describes ways in which the world is progressively more interrelated, organized, and interdependent through a set of socially reinforced processes that is controlled by customs. These processes include among others, integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to a scal e that is aiding individuals, corporations and distinct governments to access and ‘navigate’ the world much more, more rapidly, much deeper an by less costly methods (Kemp and Wong, 1995). Kemp further characterizes the global economy and trade as that which is based on spread and networking of data and knowledge, and which is predominantly borrowing from technology to focus on what he calls â€Å"post-industrial and service-oriented† outlook. In addition, cultural and pure political meaning of globalization cannot be authoritatively affirmed without bringing in the aspect of trade and economy. Moreover, cultural and political meanings are now under blockade by global financial and hi-tech reorganization. Kemp thus speaks of a mode that is data centered as a prelude to development. This happens in two ways: Through universal financial links and information, tailored connections and that these are made possible due to hunger for trade. He proceeds to assert that t here is now a tendency to ‘renovate’ places and pressure to control restricted processes of cultural meanings of economies (Kemp, 1987). Q2. The classical GFITP and Proof provided by Grandmont and McFadden (1972). Grandmount and McFadden (1972) observe that businesses in globalization largely function at one of the four basic levels of globalization. The first level is what they call the ‘’multi-domestic’’ company.

The Strategic Management of Healthcare Organizations Assignment

The Strategic Management of Healthcare Organizations - Assignment Example The researcher states that Pitney Bowes believed that when the employees are healthy, there will be less time spent outside work when the employee is out there looking for health care or attending to doctor appointments. Because of this realization, it decided to increase the number of funds that are allocated for the employee healthcare management with the aim of reducing the overall overhead cost that is incurred when the employee is away from work due to health issues. At Pitney Bowes, the employee health management strategy is basically made up of four components. The first component is the heavy investment in the employee health management staff. The firm has spent a fortune in the employee management staff. The second component is the use of data to shapes its plan, benefits, and programs. The organization relies on healthcare data to be able to come up with plans, benefits, and programs which will effectively serve the intended purpose. The third component is the focus on prev entive care. Preventing the health-related issues is cheaper than curing the conditions. The firm strives to prevent the conditions before they occur. The fourth and final component of this strategy is offering choices and flexibility. This has gone a long way in ensuring the intended goals of the plans are achieved. The management at Pitney Bowes has taken an aggressive approach when it comes to health management. The main objective has been the reduction of cost while at the same time improving outcomes. Data over the years appears to show the effectiveness of the strategy that has been used by this firm. It has enabled them to reduce the cost associated with treating employees and also eliminating expenses that are incurred due to absenteeism from work. This has therefore positively added value to the firm. As indicated earlier, the health plan selection and plan design are based on four main components which are heavy investment in staff, focus on preventive care, use of data to influence design and flexibility. Pitney Bowes believes that the upfront investment in the analysis of the plan design is much more offset by the overall healthcare cost. It utilizes large health employee management staff coupled with a data-driven approach to effectively offering the required and effective health management, design plan.

Assignment 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

2 - Assignment Example University of Oregon track coach Bowerman wanted lighter and more resilient racing shoes for his runners. One of them, Phil Knight, was trying to devise a marketing plan to fulfill a school project. During his trip to Japan, Knight met with a Japanese shoe manufacturer. He told them his company, Blue Ribbon Sports, would distribute the manufacturer’s running shoes in the USA. Knight was able to sell $8,000 worth of Japanese-made running shoes. Later, Knight and Bowman named changed their company’s name to Nike. (A brief history of Nike, n.d.) Almost a decade after Nike was created Microsoft was invented by well-known software developers Bill Gates, Paul Allen and their friends because of their love for computers. Gate and Allen successfully wrote and sold a software program to Altair manufacturers. After this, they decided to form Microsoft. (The history of Microsoft, 2001) Even if I know how these brands were created, I would still buy their products. I believe in thes e brands. The quality of their products is always satisfactory. I think because of their status in the industry, the companies will always try to make excellent products. References: A brief history of Nike. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://xroads.virginia.edu/~class/am483_97/projects/hincker/nikhist.html on May 10, 2011.

Mini-Theme 4 - Writing with Semantic Argument or Statistics Essay

Mini-Theme 4 - Writing with Semantic Argument or Statistics - Essay Example can damage the cells in the bronchial passages which protect the body against inhaled microorganisms and decrease the ability of the immune cells in the lungs to fight off fungi, bacteria and tumor cells† (Bodies of Evidence, 1999). This affect on immunity extends to the rest of the body as well, reducing its ability to fight illness in a variety of ways such as killing the ‘killer cells’ and T-cells, each necessary in combating illnesses such as AIDS and cancer. In addition, the regular use of marijuana can have many of the same effects as smoking cigarettes, such as increased risk of bronchitis and lung cancer. Regular use has also been found to exacerbate many of the problems experienced by those with mental health conditions. In the short term, marijuana use impairs judgment, perception, thinking, memory and learning. Although the statistical information supported here is rather old, dating back to 1999, it is deemed to have at least a degree of reliability in that it is written and presented by medical professionals who obviously have had some experience in treating the illnesses that are commonly associated with cigarette smoking and other drug use. However, the information is also presented by a group of individuals who are working against having marijuana legalized for any purpose, which throws a tremendous bias upon the facts given and the severity presented. Bodies of Evidence. â€Å"Health Concerns: What are the medical dangers of marijuana use?† Medical Marijuana: Cure or Catastrophe? 1999. 23 August 2007 This interview is designed to help facilitate the researcher with a better idea of what it is like to live with lupus by discussing the experience with a current patient. In particular, the question of the research is to determine whether there is sufficient funding and research for adequate treatment of the disease. By understanding the lived experience, it will be